Human Development in Psychology: 100 Q&A
Click on each question to reveal the answer.
1. What is the primary focus of human development in psychology?
The scientific study of how and why people change or remain the same over time.
2. What is the "nature vs. nurture" debate in developmental psychology?
It's the debate about the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development.
3. Define "critical period" in development.
A specific time frame during which an organism is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli, and if exposure does not occur during this period, development may be impaired.
4. What is a "sensitive period"?
A time when a particular type of developmental growth is most likely to occur, though it can still happen later with more difficulty.
5. What is a "cohort" in developmental research?
A group of people born at roughly the same historical time who share similar experiences.
6. Name the three main domains of human development.
Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional.
7. Which developmental research design studies the same individuals over a long period?
Longitudinal design.
8. Which developmental research design compares different age groups at a single point in time?
Cross-sectional design.
9. What is the main disadvantage of a cross-sectional study?
It cannot determine individual change or development over time and is susceptible to cohort effects.
10. Who proposed the ecological systems theory (now bioecological model)?
Urie Bronfenbrenner.
11. What is the microsystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?
The immediate environment surrounding the individual (e.g., family, school, peers).
12. What is the exosystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?
External social settings that indirectly affect the individual (e.g., parent's workplace, community services).
13. What is the macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner's theory?
The broader cultural context, including societal values, laws, customs, and political systems.
14. What is a "teratogen"?
Any environmental agent that can cause damage or developmental abnormalities during prenatal development.
15. What is "plasticity" in development?
The capacity for change or adaptation in response to experience or environmental demands.
16. Who developed the theory of cognitive development involving stages of intellectual growth?
Jean Piaget.
17. Name Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order.
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
18. What is "object permanence" and in which of Piaget's stages does it develop?
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched; Sensorimotor stage.
19. What is "egocentrism" according to Piaget?
The inability to take another person's perspective, characteristic of the preoperational stage.
20. What is "conservation" in Piaget's theory?
The understanding that the quantity or amount of something remains the same despite changes in its appearance; develops in the concrete operational stage.
21. At what age range does the sensorimotor stage typically occur?
Birth to approximately 2 years.
22. At what age range does the preoperational stage typically occur?
Approximately 2 to 7 years.
23. At what age range does the concrete operational stage typically occur?
Approximately 7 to 11 years.
24. What is "abstract thinking" and in which of Piaget's stages does it develop?
The ability to think about hypothetical situations and concepts not tied to concrete reality; Formal Operational stage.
25. Who proposed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development?
Lev Vygotsky.
26. What is the "Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)" according to Vygotsky?
The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of a more skilled person but cannot yet perform independently.
27. What is "scaffolding" in Vygotsky's theory?
A teaching technique where a more skilled person provides temporary support to a learner, gradually withdrawing support as the learner's competence increases.
28. How does Vygotsky's theory differ from Piaget's regarding the role of social interaction in development?
Vygotsky emphasized the crucial role of social interaction and cultural context, while Piaget focused more on individual exploration and internal cognitive structures.
29. What is "private speech" (or inner speech) in Vygotsky's theory?
Self-talk that children use to guide their thoughts and actions, which eventually becomes internalized.
30. Who proposed the eight-stage theory of psychosocial development?
Erik Erikson.
31. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's first stage (Infancy)?
Trust vs. Mistrust.
32. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's second stage (Toddlerhood)?
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.
33. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's third stage (Preschool)?
Initiative vs. Guilt.
34. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's fourth stage (School Age)?
Industry vs. Inferiority.
35. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's fifth stage (Adolescence)?
Identity vs. Role Confusion.
36. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's sixth stage (Young Adulthood)?
Intimacy vs. Isolation.
37. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's seventh stage (Middle Adulthood)?
Generativity vs. Stagnation.
38. What is the main developmental crisis in Erikson's eighth stage (Late Adulthood)?
Integrity vs. Despair.
39. Who is considered the father of psychoanalytic theory?
Sigmund Freud.
40. Name Freud's five psychosexual stages of development.
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.
41. What is the Oedipus complex, according to Freud?
A boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
42. What is "fixation" in Freudian theory?
A lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where conflicts were unresolved.
43. Who developed the attachment theory, emphasizing the importance of a secure emotional bond?
John Bowlby (with Mary Ainsworth conducting key research on attachment styles).
44. What is "secure attachment" (as observed in Ainsworth's Strange Situation)?
Infants explore freely when the caregiver is present, are visibly upset when the caregiver leaves, and are quickly comforted upon their return.
45. What is "insecure-avoidant attachment"?
Infants show little distress when the caregiver leaves, and avoid or ignore them upon their return.
46. What is "insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment"?
Infants are highly distressed when the caregiver leaves, but resist comfort or show anger upon their return.
47. What is "socialization"?
The process by which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to their society or culture.
48. Name the four main parenting styles identified by Diana Baumrind.
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful/Uninvolved.
49. Which parenting style is generally associated with the most positive child outcomes (e.g., high self-esteem, academic success)?
Authoritative parenting.
50. What characterizes authoritative parenting?
High warmth/responsiveness and high demandingness/control (clear rules, but also open communication and support).
51. What is "self-concept"?
An individual's overall perception of their abilities, behaviors, and unique characteristics.
52. What is "self-esteem"?
The evaluative component of the self-concept; how one feels about oneself.
53. What is "gender identity"?
A person's internal sense of being male, female, both, or neither.
54. What is "gender roles"?
Societal expectations for behavior based on a person's perceived gender.
55. Define "prosocial behavior."
Voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, or comforting.
56. What is "empathy"?
The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
57. What is "aggression" in a developmental context?
Behavior intended to harm another individual.
58. Who developed a theory of moral development based on levels and stages of moral reasoning?
Lawrence Kohlberg.
59. What are Kohlberg's three main levels of moral reasoning?
Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.
60. At which of Kohlberg's levels is morality based on external rewards and punishments?
Preconventional level.
61. At which of Kohlberg's levels is morality based on societal laws and rules?
Conventional level.
62. At which of Kohlberg's levels is morality based on abstract ethical principles and universal human rights?
Postconventional level.
63. What is the "Heinz Dilemma" commonly used to study in Kohlberg's theory?
A hypothetical story used to assess an individual's stage of moral reasoning.
64. What criticism did Carol Gilligan make of Kohlberg's theory?
She argued that it was gender-biased and focused too much on a male-oriented "justice perspective" rather than a female-oriented "care perspective."
65. What is "babbling"?
An infant's repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (e.g., "ba-ba," "da-da").
66. What is a "holophrase"?
A single word used to express a complete thought or sentence (e.g., a baby saying "milk!" to mean "I want milk").
67. What is "telegraphic speech"?
Early speech that omits non-essential words, typically two-word sentences (e.g., "want cookie").
68. What is "overextension" in language development?
Using a word too broadly to refer to objects that do not fit the meaning (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "doggy").
69. What is "underextension" in language development?
Using a word too narrowly (e.g., only calling their specific teddy bear "bear," not other bears).
70. Who proposed the idea of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)?
Noam Chomsky.
71. What is "Child-Directed Speech" (formerly "Motherese")?
A style of speech used by adults when talking to young children, characterized by higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, and simpler syntax.
72. What are the three periods of prenatal development?
Germinal, Embryonic, Fetal.
73. Which prenatal period is characterized by rapid cell division and implantation?
Germinal period.
74. Which prenatal period is characterized by the development of major organs and body systems, making it most vulnerable to teratogens?
Embryonic period.
75. What is "cephalocaudal development"?
Development that occurs from head to tail (e.g., babies gain control of their head before their legs).
76. What is "proximodistal development"?
Development that occurs from the center of the body outwards (e.g., babies gain control of their torso before their fingers).
77. What is the average age for an infant to begin walking independently?
Approximately 12 months (range 9-18 months).
78. What is the "toddler" age range?
Approximately 1 to 3 years.
79. What is the primary characteristic of play in early childhood (preschool)?
Solitary and parallel play, moving towards associative and cooperative play.
80. What is "puberty"?
The period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence.
81. What is the term for a girl's first menstruation?
Menarche.
82. What is the term for a boy's first ejaculation?
Spermarche.
83. What is "adolescent egocentrism"?
A heightened self-consciousness in adolescents, often characterized by the "imaginary audience" and "personal fable."
84. What is the "imaginary audience"?
Adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves and that everyone is watching them.
85. What is the "personal fable"?
Adolescents' sense of uniqueness and invulnerability, believing that no one can understand how they feel and that they are immune to dangers.
86. What is "emerging adulthood"?
A proposed developmental stage between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, typically from late teens to mid-twenties, characterized by exploration and instability.
87. What is the "climacteric" in middle adulthood?
The midlife transition in which fertility declines, including menopause for women and gradual changes for men.
88. What is "menopause"?
The cessation of a woman's menstrual periods, typically occurring in the late 40s or early 50s.
89. What cognitive ability typically shows a decline in late adulthood?
Fluid intelligence (e.g., processing speed, working memory, abstract reasoning).
90. What cognitive ability typically remains stable or may even increase in late adulthood?
Crystallized intelligence (e.g., accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, wisdom).
91. What is "resilience" in developmental psychology?
The ability to adapt effectively and thrive in the face of adversity, stress, or trauma.
92. What is the "lifespan perspective" in development?
The view that development is a lifelong process, multidirectional, multidimensional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual.
93. Who developed the social learning theory, emphasizing observational learning?
Albert Bandura.
94. What is "modeling" or "observational learning" in Bandura's theory?
Learning by observing others' behavior and its consequences.
95. What is "self-efficacy" in Bandura's theory?
An individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.
96. What are "developmental milestones"?
Observable behaviors or skills that are achieved at a specific age or age range.
97. What is "temperament"?
An individual's innate, genetically based behavioral style or personality traits, often visible from infancy.
98. Name the three common temperament classifications by Thomas and Chess.
Easy, Difficult, Slow-to-warm-up.
99. What is "goodness of fit" in relation to temperament?
The compatibility between a child's temperament and the demands and expectations of their environment, especially their parents.
100. What is the primary difference between quantitative and qualitative research in development?
Quantitative research focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis to find generalizable patterns, while qualitative research focuses on in-depth understanding of individual experiences and meanings, often through narratives or observations.
